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              <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">TeX</span></h1>
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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Tex_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Tex (disambiguation)">Tex (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary">TeX</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><span class="mw-default-size skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><img src="./_assets_/0c70a452f799bfe840676ee341124611/TeX_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="590" loading="lazy"></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data">1978<span style="display:none">&nbsp;(<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1978</span>)</span></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">3.141592653<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
   / 5&nbsp;February 2021<span style="display:none">&nbsp;(<span class="bday dtstart published updated">2021-02-05</span>)</span></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Written in</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="WEB" class="mw-redirect" title="WEB">WEB</a>/<a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Cross-platform" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-platform">Cross-platform</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_categories#Categorization_approaches" title="Software categories">Type</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Permissive_free_software_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Permissive free software license">Permissive free software</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tug.org/">tug<wbr>.org</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Repository_(version_control)" title="Repository (version control)">Repository</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">
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</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://svn.tug.org:8369/texlive/">svn<wbr>.tug<wbr>.org:8369<wbr>/texlive<wbr>/</a></span> </li></ul>
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<table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding-bottom: 0.15em;background-color:#e0e0e0;color:inherit;">TeX</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;"><a href="Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extension</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">
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.tex</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;"><a href="Media_type" title="Media type">Internet media&nbsp;type</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><div class="monospaced">
<a href="Media_type#Unregistered_tree" title="Media type">application/x-tex</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;">1978<span style="display:none">&nbsp;(<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1978</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height: 1.2; padding-right: 0.65em;">Type of format</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35;"><a href="Document_file_format" title="Document file format">Document file format</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>TeX</b>  (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="/x/: 'ch' in 'loch'">x</span></span>/</span></span>), stylized as <b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1304421816">
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</style><span class="texhtml" role="img" aria-label="TeX wordmark in serif font with traditional TeX typesetting">T<span class="texhtml-upper texhtml-e">e</span>X</span></b>, is a <a href="Typesetting" title="Typesetting">typesetting</a> <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> that was designed and written by computer scientist and Stanford University professor <a href="Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and first released in 1978. The term now refers to the system of extensions – which includes software programs called TeX <i>engines</i>, sets of TeX <a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macros</a>, and packages which provide extra typesetting functionality – built around the original TeX language.  TeX is a popular means of typesetting complex <a href="Mathematical_formulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical formulae">mathematical formulae</a>; it has been noted as one of the most sophisticated digital <a href="Typography" title="Typography">typographical</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>TeX is widely used in academia, especially in <a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, and <a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">quantitative psychology</a>. It has long since displaced <a href="Troff" title="Troff">Unix troff</a> (the previously favored formatting system), in most <a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> installations (although <i>troff</i> still remains as the default formatter of the UNIX documentation). It is also used for many other typesetting tasks, especially as the basis for <a href="LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a>, <a href="ConTeXt" title="ConTeXt">ConTeXt</a>, and other <a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a> packages.
</p><p>TeX was designed with two main goals in mind: to allow anybody to produce high-quality books with minimal effort, and to provide a system that would give exactly the same results on all computers, at any point in time (together with the <a href="Metafont" title="Metafont">Metafont</a> language for <a href="Font" title="Font">font</a> description and the <a href="Computer_Modern" title="Computer Modern">Computer Modern</a> family of <a href="Typeface" title="Typeface">typefaces</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> TeX is <a href="Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a>, which made it accessible to a wide range of users.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>
<p>When the first paper volume of Knuth's <i><a href="The_Art_of_Computer_Programming" title="The Art of Computer Programming">The Art of Computer Programming</a></i> was published in 1968,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was typeset using <a href="Hot_metal_typesetting" title="Hot metal typesetting">hot metal typesetting</a> on a <a href="Monotype_system" title="Monotype system">Monotype machine</a>. This method, dating back to the 19th century, produced a "classic style" appreciated by Knuth.<sup id="cite_ref-Knuth_Kyoto_1996_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knuth_Kyoto_1996-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the second edition was published, in 1976, the whole book had to be typeset again because the Monotype technology had been largely replaced by <a href="Phototypesetting" title="Phototypesetting">phototypesetting</a>, and the original <a href="Font" title="Font">fonts</a> were no longer available. When Knuth received the <a href="Galley_proof" title="Galley proof">galley proofs</a> of the new book on 30 March 1977, he found them inferior. Disappointed, Knuth set out to design his own typesetting system.
</p><p>Knuth saw for the first time the output of a high-quality digital typesetting system, and became interested in digital typography. On 13 May 1977, he wrote a memo to himself describing the basic features of TeX.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He planned to finish it on his <a href="Sabbatical" title="Sabbatical">sabbatical</a> in 1978 (though ultimately the language's syntax was not <a href="Freeze_(software_engineering)" title="Freeze (software engineering)">frozen</a> until 1989). <a href="Guy_L._Steele%2C_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Guy L. Steele, Jr.">Guy Steele</a> happened to be at <a href="Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford</a> during the summer of 1978, when Knuth was developing his first version of TeX. When Steele returned to the <a href="Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> that autumn, he rewrote TeX's input/output (<a href="I/O" class="mw-redirect" title="I/O">I/O</a>) to run under the <a href="Incompatible_Timesharing_System" title="Incompatible Timesharing System">Incompatible Timesharing System</a> (ITS) operating system. The first version of TeX, called TeX78, was written in the <a href="SAIL_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="SAIL programming language">SAIL programming language</a> to run on a <a href="PDP-10" title="PDP-10">PDP-10</a> under Stanford's <a href="WAITS" title="WAITS">WAITS</a> operating system.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>For later versions of TeX, Knuth invented the concept of <a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">literate programming</a>, a way of producing compilable <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> and cross-linked documentation typeset in TeX from the same original file. The language used is called <a href="WEB" class="mw-redirect" title="WEB">WEB</a> and produces programs in DEC PDP-10 <a href="Pascal_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pascal programming language">Pascal</a>.
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</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="TeX82"></span><span class="vanchor-text">TeX82</span></span>, a new version of TeX rewritten from scratch, was published in 1982. Among other changes, the original <a href="Hyphenation_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphenation algorithm">hyphenation algorithm</a> was replaced by a new algorithm written by Frank Liang. TeX82 also uses <a href="Fixed-point_arithmetic" title="Fixed-point arithmetic">fixed-point arithmetic</a> instead of <a href="Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point</a>, to ensure reproducibility of the results across different computer hardware,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981144_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981144-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and includes a real, <a href="Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a> programming language, following intense lobbying by Guy Steele.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1989, Donald Knuth released new versions of TeX and <a href="Metafont" title="Metafont">Metafont</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his desire to keep the program stable, Knuth realized that 128&nbsp;different characters for the text input were not enough to accommodate foreign languages; the main change in version 3.0 of TeX is thus the ability to work with <a href="8-bit" class="mw-redirect" title="8-bit">8-bit</a> inputs, allowing 256 different characters in the text input. TeX3.0 was released on March 15, 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Since version 3, TeX has used an idiosyncratic <a href="Software_versioning" title="Software versioning">version numbering system</a>, where updates have been indicated by adding an extra digit at the end of the decimal, so that the version number <a href="Asymptotically" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymptotically">asymptotically</a> approaches <a href="Pi" title="Pi"><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">π</span></a>. This is a reflection of the fact that TeX is now very stable, and only minor updates are anticipated. The current version of TeX is 3.141592653; it was last updated in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The design was frozen after version 3.0, and no new feature or fundamental change will be added, so all newer versions will contain only <a href="Software_bug" title="Software bug">bug</a> fixes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though Donald Knuth himself has suggested a few areas in which TeX could have been improved, he indicated that he firmly believes that having an unchanged system that will produce the same output now and in the future is more important than introducing new features. For this reason, he has stated that the "absolutely final change (to be made after my death)" will be to change the version number to <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">π</span>, at which point all remaining bugs will become features.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, versions of Metafont after 2.0 asymptotically approach <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;"><a href="E_(mathematical_constant)" title="E (mathematical constant)">e</a></span> (currently at 2.7182818), and a similar change will be applied after Knuth's death.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronunciation_and_spelling">Pronunciation and spelling</h2></div>
<p>The name TeX is intended by its developer to be pronounced <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="/x/: 'ch' in 'loch'">x</span></span>/</span></span>, with the final consonant of <i>loch.</i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The letters of the name are meant to represent the <a href="Capital_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital letter">capital</a> <a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> letters <a href="Tau" title="Tau">tau</a>, <a href="Epsilon" title="Epsilon">epsilon</a>, and <a href="Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">chi</a>, as TeX is an abbreviation of <a href="Techne" title="Techne">τέχνη</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΤΕΧΝΗ</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">technē</i></span>), Greek for both "art" and "craft", which is also the root word of <i>technical</i>. English speakers often pronounce it <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</span></span>, like the first syllable of <i>technical</i>. Knuth instructs that it be typeset with the "E" below the baseline and reduced spacing between the letters. This is done, as Knuth mentions in his <i>TeXbook</i>, to distinguish TeX from other system names such as TEX, the Text EXecutive processor (developed by Honeywell Information Systems).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2></div>
<p>TeX commands commonly start with a <a href="Backslash" title="Backslash">backslash</a> and are grouped with <a href="Bracket" title="Bracket">curly braces</a>. Almost all of TeX's syntactic properties can be changed on the fly, which makes TeX input hard to parse by anything but TeX itself. TeX is a <a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a>- and <a href="Token_(parser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Token (parser)">token</a>-based language: many commands, including most user-defined ones, are expanded on the fly until only unexpandable tokens remain, which are then executed. Expansion itself is practically free from side effects. <a href="Tail_recursion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tail recursion">Tail recursion</a> of macros takes no memory, and if-then-else constructs are available. This makes TeX a <a href="Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a> language even at the expansion level.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system can be divided into four levels: in the first, characters are read from the input file and assigned a category code (sometimes called "catcode", for short). Combinations of a backslash (actually, any character of category zero) followed by letters (characters of category 11) or a single other character are replaced by a control-sequence token. In this sense, this stage is like lexical analysis, although it does not form numbers from digits. In the next stage, expandable control sequences (such as conditionals or defined macros) are replaced by their replacement text. The input for the third stage is then a stream of characters (including the ones with special meaning) and unexpandable control sequences (typically assignments and visual commands). Here, the characters get assembled into a paragraph, and TeX's paragraph breaking algorithm works by optimizing breakpoints over the whole paragraph. The fourth stage breaks the vertical list of lines and other material into pages.
</p><p>The TeX system has precise knowledge of the sizes of all characters and symbols, and using this information, it computes the optimal arrangement of letters per line and lines per page. It then produces a <a href="DVI_file_format" class="mw-redirect" title="DVI file format">DVI</a> file ("DeVice Independent") containing the final locations of all characters. This DVI file can then be printed directly given an appropriate printer driver, or it can be converted to other formats. Nowadays, <a href="PdfTeX" title="PdfTeX">pdfTeX</a> is often used, which bypasses DVI generation altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The base TeX system understands about 300 commands, called <i>primitives</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuth19849_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuth19849-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These low-level commands are rarely used directly by users, and most functionality is provided by format files (predumped memory images of TeX after large macro collections have been loaded). Knuth's original default format, which adds about 600 commands, is <span class="vanchor"><span id="Plain_TeX"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Plain TeX</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most widely used format is <a href="LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a>, originally developed by <a href="Leslie_Lamport" title="Leslie Lamport">Leslie Lamport</a>, which incorporates document styles for books, letters, slides, etc., and adds support for referencing and automatic numbering of sections and equations. Another widely used format, <a href="AMS-TeX" class="mw-redirect" title="AMS-TeX">AMS-TeX</a>, is produced by the <a href="American_Mathematical_Society" title="American Mathematical Society">American Mathematical Society</a> and provides many more user-friendly commands, which can be altered by journals to fit with their house style. Most of the features of AMS-TeX can be used in LaTeX by using the "AMS packages" (e.g., <code>amsmath</code>, <code>amssymb</code>) and the "AMS document classes" (e.g., <code>amsart</code>, <code>amsbook</code>). This is then referred to as <a href="AMS-LaTeX" title="AMS-LaTeX">AMS-LaTeX</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other formats include <a href="ConTeXt" title="ConTeXt">ConTeXt</a>, used primarily for desktop publishing and written mostly by Hans Hagen at Pragma.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2></div>
<p>The TeX software incorporates several aspects that were not available, or were of lower quality, in other typesetting programs at the time when TeX was released. Some of the innovations are based on interesting algorithms, and have led to several theses for Knuth's students. While some of these discoveries have now been incorporated into other typesetting programs, others, such as the rules for mathematical spacing, are still unique.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematical_spacing">Mathematical spacing</h3></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img src="./_assets_/0c70a452f799bfe840676ee341124611/AMS_Euler_sample_math.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1322" data-file-height="873" loading="lazy"><figcaption>Mathematical text typeset using TeX and the <a href="AMS_Euler" title="AMS Euler">AMS Euler</a> font</figcaption></figure>
<p>Since the primary goal of the TeX language is high-quality typesetting for publishers of books, Knuth gave a lot of attention to the spacing rules for mathematical formulae.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He took three bodies of work that he considered to be standards of excellence for mathematical typography: the books typeset by the <a href="Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley Publishing</a> house (the publisher of <i>The Art of Computer Programming</i>) under the supervision of Hans Wolf; editions of the mathematical journal <i><a href="Acta_Mathematica" title="Acta Mathematica">Acta Mathematica</a></i> from around 1910; and a copy of <i><a href="Indagationes_Mathematicae" title="Indagationes Mathematicae">Indagationes Mathematicae</a></i>, a <a href="Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> mathematics journal. Knuth looked closely at these printed papers to sort out a set of rules for spacing.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DigitalTypography_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DigitalTypography-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While TeX provides some basic rules and the tools needed to specify proper spacing, the exact parameters depend on the font used to typeset the formula. For example, the spacing for Knuth's <a href="Computer_Modern" title="Computer Modern">Computer Modern</a> fonts has been precisely fine-tuned over the years and is now set; but when other fonts, such as <a href="AMS_Euler" title="AMS Euler">AMS Euler</a>, were used by Knuth for the first time, new spacing parameters had to be defined.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The typesetting of math in TeX is not without criticism, particularly with respect to technical details of the font metrics, which were designed in an era when significant attention was paid to storage requirements. This resulted in some "hacks" overloading some fields, which in turn required other "hacks". On an aesthetics level, the rendering of radicals has also been criticized.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="OpenType_math" class="mw-redirect" title="OpenType math">OpenType math</a> font specification largely borrows from TeX, but has some new features/enhancements.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyphenation_and_justification">Hyphenation and justification</h3></div>
<p>In comparison with manual typesetting, the problem of <a href="Justification_(typesetting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Justification (typesetting)">justification</a> is easy to solve with a digital system such as TeX, which, provided that good points for line breaking have been defined, can automatically spread the spaces between words to fill in the line. The problem is thus to find the set of breakpoints that will give the most visually pleasing result. Many line-breaking algorithms use a <a href="Greedy_algorithm" title="Greedy algorithm">greedy algorithm</a>, where the breakpoints for each line are determined one after the other, and no breakpoint is changed after it has been chosen.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a system is not able to define a breakpoint depending on the effect that it will have on the following lines. In comparison, TeX utilizes a globally optimizing <a href="Knuth%E2%80%93Plass_line-breaking_algorithm" title="Knuth–Plass line-breaking algorithm">line-breaking algorithm developed by Donald Knuth and Michael Plass</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that considers all the possible breakpoints in a paragraph.
</p><p>Formally, the algorithm defines a value called <i>badness</i> associated with each possible line break; the badness is increased if the spaces on the line must stretch or shrink too much to make the line the correct width. Penalties are added if a breakpoint is particularly undesirable: for example, if a word must be <a href="Hyphen" title="Hyphen">hyphenated</a>, if two lines in a row are hyphenated, or if a very loose line is immediately followed by a very tight line. The algorithm will then find the breakpoints that will minimize the sum of squares of the badness (including penalties) of the resulting lines. If the paragraph contains <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>n</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span> possible breakpoints, the number of situations that must be evaluated naively is <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2^{n}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msup>
          <mn>2</mn>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msup>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2^{n}}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8226f30650ee4fe4e640c6d2798127e80e9c160d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.381ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span>. However, by using the method of <a href="Dynamic_programming" title="Dynamic programming">dynamic programming</a>, the complexity of the algorithm can be brought down to <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O(n^{2})}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>O</mi>
        <mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
        <msup>
          <mi>n</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mn>2</mn>
          </mrow>
        </msup>
        <mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O(n^{2})}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6cd9594a16cb898b8f2a2dff9227a385ec183392.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.032ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O(n^{2})}" loading="lazy"></span> (see <a href="Big_O_notation" title="Big O notation">Big O notation</a>). Further simplifications (for example, not testing extremely unlikely breakpoints such as a hyphenation in the first word of a paragraph, or very overfull lines) lead to an efficient algorithm whose running time is <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O(nw)}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>O</mi>
        <mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
        <mi>n</mi>
        <mi>w</mi>
        <mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O(nw)}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/94b7dee919afb3ed297a3199c04f049f75deb82c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.641ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O(nw)}" loading="lazy"></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>w</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/88b1e0c8e1be5ebe69d18a8010676fa42d7961e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.664ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w}" loading="lazy"></span> is the width of a line. A similar algorithm is used to determine the best way to break paragraphs across two pages, in order to avoid <a href="Widow_(typesetting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Widow (typesetting)">widows</a> or <a href="Orphan_(typesetting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orphan (typesetting)">orphans</a> (lines that appear alone on a page while the rest of the paragraph is on the following or preceding page). However, in general, a thesis by Michael Plass shows how the page-breaking problem can be <a href="NP-complete" class="mw-redirect" title="NP-complete">NP-complete</a> because of the added complication of placing figures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> TeX's line-breaking algorithm has been adopted by several other programs, such as <a href="Adobe_InDesign" title="Adobe InDesign">Adobe InDesign</a> (a <a href="Desktop_publishing" title="Desktop publishing">desktop publishing</a> <a href="Computer_application" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer application">application</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="GNU" title="GNU">GNU</a> <a href="Fmt_(Unix)" title="Fmt (Unix)">fmt</a> <a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> <a href="Command_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Command line">command line</a> utility.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>If no suitable line break can be found for a line, the system will try to hyphenate a word. The original version of TeX used a hyphenation algorithm based on a set of rules for the removal of prefixes and suffixes of words, and for deciding if it should insert a break between the two consonants in a pattern of the form <a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a>–<a href="Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a>–<a href="Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a>–<a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> (which is possible most of the time).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang19833_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang19833-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> TeX82 introduced a new hyphenation algorithm, designed by Frank Liang in 1983, to assign priorities to breakpoints in letter groups. A list of hyphenation patterns is first generated automatically from a corpus of hyphenated words (a list of 50,000 words). If TeX must find the acceptable hyphenation positions in the word <i>encyclopedia</i>, for example, it will consider all the subwords of the extended word <i>.encyclopedia.</i>, where <i>.</i> is a special marker to indicate the beginning or end of the word. The list of subwords includes all the subwords of length 1 (<i>.</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>y</i>, etc.), of length 2 (<i>.e</i>, <i>en</i>, <i>nc</i>, etc.), etc., up to the subword of length 14, which is the word itself, including the markers. TeX will then look into its list of hyphenation patterns, and find subwords for which it has calculated the desirability of hyphenation at each position. In the case of our word, 11 such patterns can be matched, namely <sub>1</sub>c<sub>4</sub>l<sub>4</sub>, <sub>1</sub>cy, <sub>1</sub>d<sub>4</sub>i<sub>3</sub>a, <sub>4</sub>edi, e<sub>3</sub>dia, <sub>2</sub>i<sub>1</sub>a, ope<sub>5</sub>d, <sub>2</sub>p<sub>2</sub>ed, <sub>3</sub>pedi, pedia<sub>4</sub>, y<sub>1</sub>c. For each position in the word, TeX will calculate the <i>maximum value</i> obtained among all matching patterns, yielding en<sub>1</sub>cy<sub>1</sub>c<sub>4</sub>l<sub>4</sub>o<sub>3</sub>p<sub>4</sub>e<sub>5</sub>d<sub>4</sub>i<sub>3</sub>a<sub>4</sub>. Finally, the acceptable positions are those indicated by an <a href="Even_and_odd_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Even and odd numbers">odd</a> number, yielding the acceptable hyphenations <i>en-cy-clo-pe-di-a</i>. This system based on subwords allows the definition of very general patterns (such as <sub>2</sub>i<sub>1</sub>a), with low indicative numbers (either odd or even), which can then be superseded by more specific patterns (such as <sub>1</sub>d<sub>4</sub>i<sub>3</sub>a) if necessary. These patterns find about 90% of the hyphens in the original dictionary; more importantly, they do not insert any spurious hyphen. In addition, a list of exceptions (words for which the patterns do not predict the correct hyphenation) are included with the Plain TeX format; additional ones can be specified by the user.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang1983_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang1983-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metafont">Metafont</h3></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Metafont" title="Metafont">Metafont</a></div>
<p>Metafont, not strictly part of TeX, is a font description system which allows the designer to describe characters algorithmically. It uses <a href="B%C3%A9zier_curve" title="Bézier curve">Bézier curves</a> in a fairly standard way to generate the actual characters to be displayed, but Knuth devotes substantial attention to the <a href="Font_rasterization" title="Font rasterization">rasterizing</a> problem on <a href="Raster_graphics" title="Raster graphics">bitmapped</a> displays. Another thesis, by John Hobby, further explores this problem of digitizing "brush trajectories". This term derives from the fact that Metafont describes characters as having been drawn by abstract brushes (and erasers). It is commonly believed that TeX is based on bitmap fonts but, in fact, these programs "know" nothing about the fonts that they are using other than their dimensions. It is the responsibility of the device driver to appropriately handle fonts of other types, including PostScript Type 1 and TrueType. Computer Modern (commonly known as "the TeX font") is freely available in Type 1 format, as are the AMS math fonts. Users of TeX systems that output directly to PDF, such as pdfTeX, XeTeX, or LuaTeX, generally never use Metafont output at all.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macro_language">Macro language</h3></div>
<p>TeX documents are written and programmed using an unusual macro language. Broadly speaking, the running of this macro language involves expansion and execution stages which do not interact directly. Expansion includes both literal expansion of macro definitions as well as conditional branching, and execution involves such tasks as setting variables/registers and the actual typesetting process of adding glyphs to boxes.
</p><p>The definition of a macro not only includes a list of commands but also the syntax of the call. It differs with most widely used <a href="Lexical_preprocessor" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical preprocessor">lexical preprocessors</a> like <a href="M4_(computer_language)" title="M4 (computer language)">M4</a>, in that the body of a macro gets tokenized at definition time.
</p><p>The TeX macro language has been used to write larger document production systems, most notably including LaTeX and ConTeXt.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img src="./_assets_/0c70a452f799bfe840676ee341124611/LaTeX_sample.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="324" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" loading="lazy"><figcaption>A sample page produced using TeX with the <a href="LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a> macros</figcaption></figure>
<p>A sample <a href="Hello_world_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Hello world program">Hello world program</a> in plain TeX is:
</p>
<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-latex mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span>Hello, World
<span class="k">\bye</span>          <span class="c">% marks the end of the file; not shown in the final output</span>
</pre></div>
<p>This might be in a file <i>myfile.tex</i>, as <i>.tex</i> is a common <a href="File_extension" class="mw-redirect" title="File extension">file extension</a> for plain TeX files. By default, everything that follows a percent sign on a line is a comment, ignored by TeX. Running TeX on this file (for example, by typing <kbd>tex&nbsp;myfile.tex</kbd> in a <a href="Command-line_interpreter" class="mw-redirect" title="Command-line interpreter">command-line interpreter</a>, or by calling it from a <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a>) will create an output file called <i>myfile.dvi</i>, representing the content of the page in a <b>d</b>e<b>v</b>ice <b>i</b>ndependent format (DVI). A DVI file could then be either viewed on screen or converted to a suitable format for any of the various printers for which a device driver existed (printer support was generally not an operating system feature at the time that TeX was created). Knuth has said that there is nothing inherent in TeX that requires DVI as the output format, and later versions of TeX, notably pdfTeX, XeTeX, and LuaTeX, all support output directly to <a href="Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>.
</p><p>TeX provides a different text syntax specifically for mathematical formulas. For example, the <a href="Quadratic_formula" title="Quadratic formula">quadratic formula</a> (which is the solution of the <a href="Quadratic_equation" title="Quadratic equation">quadratic equation</a>) appears as:
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Source code</th>
<th>Renders as
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-latex mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span>The quadratic formula is <span class="s">$</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb">b </span><span class="nv">\pm</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="nv">\sqrt</span><span class="nb">{b^</span><span class="m">2</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="m">4</span><span class="nb">ac} </span><span class="nv">\over</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="m">2</span><span class="nb">a</span><span class="s">$</span>
<span class="k">\bye</span>
</pre></div>
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hbox{The quadratic formula is }}\textstyle {-b\pm {\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}} \over 2a}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
            <mtext>The quadratic formula is&nbsp;</mtext>
          </mstyle>
        </mrow>
        <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mfrac>
              <mrow>
                <mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
                <mi>b</mi>
                <mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <msqrt>
                    <msup>
                      <mi>b</mi>
                      <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                        <mn>2</mn>
                      </mrow>
                    </msup>
                    <mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
                    <mn>4</mn>
                    <mi>a</mi>
                    <mi>c</mi>
                  </msqrt>
                </mrow>
              </mrow>
              <mrow>
                <mn>2</mn>
                <mi>a</mi>
              </mrow>
            </mfrac>
          </mrow>
        </mstyle>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hbox{The quadratic formula is }}\textstyle {-b\pm {\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}} \over 2a}}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c869d3c90e7aad981e19ee3b46255e7445a5d56d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:36.306ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hbox{The quadratic formula is }}\textstyle {-b\pm {\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}} \over 2a}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The formula is printed in a way a person would write by hand, or typeset the equation. In a document, entering <i>mathematics mode</i> is done by starting with a $ symbol, then entering a formula in TeX syntax, and closing again with another of the same symbol. Knuth explained in jest that he chose the dollar sign to indicate the beginning and end of mathematical mode in plain TeX because typesetting mathematics was traditionally supposed to be expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuth1984127Ch._16:_Typing_Math_Formulas_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuth1984127Ch._16:_Typing_Math_Formulas-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Display mathematics</i> (mathematics presented centred on a new line) is similar but uses $$ instead of a single $ symbol. For example, the above with the quadratic formula in display math:
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Source code</th>
<th>Renders as
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-latex mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span>The quadratic formula is <span class="sb">$$</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb">b </span><span class="nv">\pm</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="nv">\sqrt</span><span class="nb">{b^</span><span class="m">2</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="m">4</span><span class="nb">ac} </span><span class="nv">\over</span><span class="nb"> </span><span class="m">2</span><span class="nb">a</span><span class="s">$$</span>
<span class="k">\bye</span>
</pre></div>
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{\text{The quadratic formula is}}\\\displaystyle {\frac {-b\pm {\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}}}{2a}}\end{matrix}}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
            <mtr>
              <mtd>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <mtext>The quadratic formula is</mtext>
                </mrow>
              </mtd>
            </mtr>
            <mtr>
              <mtd>
                <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
                  <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                    <mfrac>
                      <mrow>
                        <mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
                        <mi>b</mi>
                        <mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
                        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                          <msqrt>
                            <msup>
                              <mi>b</mi>
                              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                                <mn>2</mn>
                              </mrow>
                            </msup>
                            <mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
                            <mn>4</mn>
                            <mi>a</mi>
                            <mi>c</mi>
                          </msqrt>
                        </mrow>
                      </mrow>
                      <mrow>
                        <mn>2</mn>
                        <mi>a</mi>
                      </mrow>
                    </mfrac>
                  </mrow>
                </mstyle>
              </mtd>
            </mtr>
          </mtable>
        </mrow>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{\text{The quadratic formula is}}\\\displaystyle {\frac {-b\pm {\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}}}{2a}}\end{matrix}}}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/734c8b4106dfaf8777a03947a3245e9504cda5b5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.171ex; width:25.516ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{\text{The quadratic formula is}}\\\displaystyle {\frac {-b\pm {\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}}}{2a}}\end{matrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2></div>
<p>In several technical fields such as computer science, mathematics, engineering and physics, TeX has become a <a href="De_facto_standard" title="De facto standard">de facto standard</a>. Many thousands of books have been published using TeX, including books published by <a href="Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a>, <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>, <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, and <a href="Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. Numerous journals in these fields are produced using TeX or LaTeX, allowing authors to submit their raw manuscript written in TeX.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeebe200410_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeebe200410-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many publications in other fields, including dictionaries and legal publications, have been produced using TeX, it has not been as successful as in the more technical fields, as TeX was primarily designed to typeset mathematics.
</p><p>When he designed TeX, Donald Knuth did not believe that a single typesetting system would fit everyone's needs; instead, he designed many hooks inside the program so that it would be possible to write extensions, and released the source code, hoping that the publishers would design versions tailoring to their own needs. While such extensions have been created (including some by Knuth himself),<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most people have extended TeX only using macros and it has remained a system associated with technical typesetting.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DigitalTypography_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DigitalTypography-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemistry_notation">Chemistry notation</h3></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Structural_formula" title="Structural formula">Structural formula</a></div>
<p>Packages like mhchem, <a href="XyMTeX" title="XyMTeX">XyMTeX</a>, <a href="Chemfig" title="Chemfig">chemfig</a>, and chemmacros for typesetting <a href="Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">chemical equations</a>, <a href="Chemical_structure" title="Chemical structure">structures</a>, and <a href="Chemical_reaction#Reaction_types" title="Chemical reaction">reactions</a> in LaTeX.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="XML_publication">XML publication</h3></div>
<p>It is possible to use TeX for automatic generation of sophisticated layout for XML data. The differences in syntax between the two description languages can be overcome with the help of <a href="TeXML" title="TeXML">TeXML</a>. In the context of XML publication, TeX can thus be considered an alternative to <a href="XSL_Formatting_Objects" title="XSL Formatting Objects">XSL-FO</a>. TeX allowed scientific papers in mathematical disciplines to be reduced to relatively small files that could be rendered client-side, allowing fully typeset scientific papers to be exchanged over the early Internet and emerging World Wide Web, even when sending large files was difficult. This paved the way for the creation of repositories of scientific papers such as <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</a>, through which papers could be 'published' without an intermediary publisher.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div>
<p>The original source code for the current TeX software is written in <a href="WEB" class="mw-redirect" title="WEB">WEB</a>, a mixture of documentation written in TeX and a <a href="Pascal_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pascal programming language">Pascal</a> subset in order to ensure  readability and portability. For example, TeX does all of its dynamic allocation itself from fixed-size arrays and uses only <a href="Fixed-point_arithmetic" title="Fixed-point arithmetic">fixed-point arithmetic</a> for its internal calculations. As a result, TeX has been ported to almost all <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, usually by using the <a href="Web2c" class="mw-redirect" title="Web2c">web2c</a> program to convert the source code into <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> instead of directly compiling the Pascal code. Knuth has kept a very detailed log of all the bugs he has corrected and changes he has made in the program since 1982; as of 2025, the list contains 440 entries, not including the version modification that should be done after his death as the final change in TeX.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knuth offers <a href="Knuth_reward_check" title="Knuth reward check">monetary awards</a> to people who find and report a <a href="Computer_bug" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer bug">bug</a> in TeX. The award per bug started at US$2.56 (one "hexadecimal dollar"<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and doubled every year until it was frozen at its current value of $327.68. Knuth has lost relatively little money as there have been very few bugs claimed. In addition, recipients have been known to frame their check as proof that they found a bug in TeX rather than cashing it.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Due to scammers finding scanned copies of his checks on the internet and using them to try to drain his bank account, Knuth no longer sends out real checks, but those who submit bug reports can get credit at <a href="San_Serriffe#National_Bank" title="San Serriffe">The Bank of San Serriffe</a> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distributions_and_extensions">Distributions and extensions</h2></div>
<p>TeX is usually provided in the form of an easy-to-install bundle of TeX itself along with <a href="Metafont" title="Metafont">Metafont</a> and all the necessary fonts, documents formats, and utilities needed to use the typesetting system. On UNIX-compatible systems, including <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> and <a href="Apple%2C_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Apple, Inc.">Apple</a> <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, TeX is distributed as part of the larger <a href="TeX_Live" title="TeX Live">TeX Live</a> distribution. (Prior to TeX Live, the <a href="TeTeX" title="TeTeX">teTeX</a> distribution was the de facto standard on UNIX-compatible systems.) On <a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>, there is the <a href="MiKTeX" title="MiKTeX">MiKTeX</a> distribution (enhanced by proTeXt) and the Microsoft Windows version of TeX Live.
</p><p>Several document processing systems are based on TeX, notably jadeTeX, which uses TeX as a backend for printing from <a href="James_Clark_(XML_expert)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Clark (XML expert)">James Clark</a>'s <a href="Document_Style_Semantics_and_Specification_Language" title="Document Style Semantics and Specification Language">DSSSL Engine</a>, the <a href="Arbortext" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbortext">Arbortext</a> publishing system, and <a href="Texinfo" title="Texinfo">Texinfo</a>, the GNU documentation processing system. TeX has been the official typesetting package for the GNU operating system since 1984.
</p><p>Numerous extensions and companion programs for TeX exist, among them <a href="BibTeX" title="BibTeX">BibTeX</a> for bibliographies (distributed with LaTeX); pdfTeX, a TeX-compatible engine which can directly produce PDF output (as well as continuing to support the original DVI output); <a href="XeTeX" title="XeTeX">XeTeX</a>, a TeX-compatible engine that supports <a href="Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> and <a href="OpenType" title="OpenType">OpenType</a>; and <a href="LuaTeX" title="LuaTeX">LuaTeX</a>, a Unicode-aware extension to TeX that includes a Lua runtime with extensive hooks into the underlying TeX routines and algorithms. Most TeX extensions are available for free from <a href="CTAN" title="CTAN">CTAN</a>, the Comprehensive TeX Archive Network.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="License">License</h2></div>
<p>Donald Knuth has indicated several times<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DigitalTypography_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DigitalTypography-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the source code of TeX has been placed into the "<a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>", and he strongly encourages modifications or experimentations with this source code. However, since Knuth highly values the reproducibility of the output of all versions of TeX, any changed version must not be called TeX, or anything confusingly similar. To enforce this rule, any implementation of the system must pass a test suite called the TRIP test<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before being allowed to be called TeX. The question of licence is somewhat confused by the statements included at the beginning of the TeX source code,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which indicate that "all rights are reserved. Copying of this file is authorized only if&nbsp;... you make absolutely no changes to your copy". This restriction should be interpreted as a prohibition to change the source code <i>as long as the file is called tex.web</i>. The copyright note at the beginning of tex.web (and mf.web) was changed in 2021 to explicitly state this. This interpretation is confirmed later in the source code when the TRIP test is mentioned ("If this program is changed, the resulting system should not be called 'TeX<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>").<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="American_Mathematical_Society" title="American Mathematical Society">American Mathematical Society</a> tried in the early 1980s to claim a <a href="Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> for TeX. This was rejected because at the time "TEX" (all caps) was registered by <a href="Honeywell" title="Honeywell">Honeywell</a> for the "Text EXecutive" text processing system.
</p><p>Since the source code of TeX is essentially in the <a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>, other programmers are allowed (and explicitly encouraged) to improve the system, but are required to use another name to distribute the modified TeX, meaning that the <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> can still evolve. For example, the <a href="Omega_(TeX)" title="Omega (TeX)">Omega</a> project was developed after 1991, primarily to enhance TeX's multilingual typesetting abilities.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knuth created "unofficial" modified versions, such as TeX-XeT, which allows a user to mix texts written in <a href="Bi-directional_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Bi-directional text">left-to-right and right-to-left</a> <a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a> in the same document.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Community">Community</h2></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img src="./_assets_/0c70a452f799bfe840676ee341124611/Logo_TUG.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="122" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="701" loading="lazy"><figcaption>TeX Users Group's logo</figcaption></figure>
<p>Notable entities in the TeX community include the TeX Users Group (TUG), which currently publishes <i><a href="TUGboat" title="TUGboat">TUGboat</a></i> and formerly published <i><a href="The_PracTeX_Journal" title="The PracTeX Journal">The PracTeX Journal</a></i>, covering a wide range of topics in <a href="Digital_typography" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital typography">digital typography</a> relevant to TeX. The <a href="Deutschsprachige_Anwendervereinigung_TeX" title="Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung TeX">Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung TeX</a> (DANTE) is a large user group in Germany. The TeX Users Group was founded in 1980 for educational and scientific purposes, provides an organization for those who have an interest in typography and font design, and are users of the TeX typesetting system invented by Knuth. The TeX Users Group represents the interests of TeX users worldwide. The TeX Users Group publishes the <a href="Scientific_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific journal">journal</a> <i><a href="TUGboat" title="TUGboat">TUGboat</a></i> three times per year;<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DANTE publishes <i>Die TeXnische Komödie</i> four times per year. Other user groups include DK-TUG in <a href="Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, GUTenberg in <a href="France" title="France">France</a>, GuIT in <a href="Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, NTG in the Netherlands and UK-TUG in the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>; the user groups jointly maintain a complete list.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Editors">Editors</h2></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Comparison_of_TeX_editors" title="Comparison of TeX editors">Comparison of TeX editors</a></div>
<p>There are a variety of editors designed to work with TeX:
</p>
<ul><li>The <a href="GNU_TeXmacs" title="GNU TeXmacs">TeXmacs</a> text editor is a <a href="WYSIWYG" title="WYSIWYG">WYSIWYG</a>-<a href="WYSIWYM" title="WYSIWYM">WYSIWYM</a> scientific text editor, inspired by both TeX and <a href="Emacs" title="Emacs">Emacs</a>. It uses Knuth's fonts and can generate TeX output.</li>
<li><a href="Overleaf" title="Overleaf">Overleaf</a> is a partial-WYSIWYG, online editor that provides a cloud-based solution to TeX along with additional features in real-time collaborative editing.</li>
<li><a href="LyX" title="LyX">LyX</a> is a <a href="WYSIWYM" title="WYSIWYM">WYSIWYM</a> document processor which runs on a variety of platforms including:
<ul><li><a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>,</li>
<li><a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> (newer versions require Windows 2000 or later)</li>
<li>Apple <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a> (using a non-native <a href="Qt_(toolkit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qt (toolkit)">Qt</a> front-end).</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="TeXShop" title="TeXShop">TeXShop</a> (for macOS), <a href="TeXworks" title="TeXworks">TeXworks</a> (for Linux, macOS and Windows) and <a href="WinShell" title="WinShell">WinShell</a> (for Windows) are similar tools and provide an integrated development environment (IDE) for working with LaTeX or TeX. For <a href="KDE" title="KDE">KDE</a>/Qt, <a href="Kile" title="Kile">Kile</a> provides such an IDE.</li>
<li><a href="Texmaker" title="Texmaker">Texmaker</a> is the Pure Qt equivalent of Kile, with a user interface that is nearly the same as Kile's.</li>
<li><a href="TeXstudio" title="TeXstudio">TeXstudio</a> is an open-source fork (2009) of <a href="Texmaker" title="Texmaker">Texmaker</a> that offers a different approach to configurability and features. Free downloadable binaries are provided for Windows, Linux, macOS, OS/2, and FreeBSD.</li>
<li><a href="GNU_Emacs" title="GNU Emacs">GNU Emacs</a> has various built-in and third-party packages with support for TeX, the major one being <a href="AUCTeX" title="AUCTeX">AUCTeX</a>.</li>
<li><a href="Visual_Studio_Code" title="Visual Studio Code">Visual Studio Code</a>.  A notable extension is LaTeX Workshop</li>
<li>For <a href="Vim_(text_editor)" title="Vim (text editor)">Vim</a>, possible plugins include Vim-LaTeX Suite,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Automatic TeX,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and TeX-9.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>For <a href="Apache_OpenOffice" title="Apache OpenOffice">Apache OpenOffice</a> and <a href="LibreOffice" title="LibreOffice">LibreOffice</a>, iMath and TexMaths extensions can provide mathematical TeX typesetting.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>For <a href="MediaWiki" title="MediaWiki">MediaWiki</a>, the <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Math" class="extiw external" title="mw:Extension:Math">Math extension</a> provides mathematical TeX typesetting, but the code needs to be surrounded by <code>&lt;math&gt;</code> tag.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extensions">Extensions</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="List_of_TeX_extensions" title="List of TeX extensions">List of TeX extensions</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a href="List_of_TeX_typesetting_software_and_tools" title="List of TeX typesetting software and tools">List of TeX typesetting software and tools</a></li>
<li><a href="Comparison_of_document_markup_languages" title="Comparison of document markup languages">Comparison of document markup languages</a></li>
<li><a href="Formula_editor" title="Formula editor">Formula editor</a>&nbsp;– Computer program used to typeset mathematical works or formulae</li>
<li><a href="List_of_document_markup_languages" title="List of document markup languages">List of document markup languages</a></li>
<li><a href="MathJax" title="MathJax">MathJax</a>&nbsp;– Cross-browser JavaScript library that displays mathematical equations in web browsers</li>
<li><a href="MathTime" title="MathTime">MathTime</a>&nbsp;– Typeface for TeX</li>
<li><a href="New_Typesetting_System" title="New Typesetting System">New Typesetting System</a></li>
<li><a href="PGF/TikZ" title="PGF/TikZ">PGF/TikZ</a>&nbsp;– Graphics languages</li>
<li><a href="PSTricks" title="PSTricks">PSTricks</a></li>
<li><a href="Xdvi" title="Xdvi">xdvi</a>&nbsp;– Open Source Computer Program</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>
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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctan.org/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/tex">"CTAN"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=CTAN&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fctan.org%2Ftex-archive%2Fsystems%2Fknuth%2Fdist%2Ftex&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gcc.gnu.org/ml/java/1999-q2/msg00419.html">"Per Bothner (attendee at TeX Project meetings) discusses authorship"</a>. <q>Knuth definitely wrote most of the code himself, at least for the Metafont re-write, for which I have pe[r]sonal knowledge.  However, some of his students (such as Michael Plass and John Hobby) did work on the algorithms used in TeX and Metafont.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Per+Bothner+%28attendee+at+TeX+Project+meetings%29+discusses+authorship&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgcc.gnu.org%2Fml%2Fjava%2F1999-q2%2Fmsg00419.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yannis Haralambous. <i>Fonts &amp; Encodings (Translated by P. Scott Horne)</i>. Beijing; Sebastopol, Calif: O'Reilly Media, 2007, pp. 235.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGaudeul2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gaudeul, Alexia (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.908946">"Do Open Source Developers Respond to Competition?: The (La)TeX Case Study"</a>. <i>SSRN Electronic Journal</i>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.908946">10.2139/ssrn.908946</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&nbsp;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SSRN+Electronic+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Do+Open+Source+Developers+Respond+to+Competition%3F%3A+The+%28La%29TeX+Case+Study&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.908946&amp;rft.issn=1556-5068&amp;rft.aulast=Gaudeul&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2139%252Fssrn.908946&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth" class="citation web cs1">Knuth, Donald E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161205093445/http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/vita.html">"Less brief biography"</a>. <i>Don Knuth's Home Page</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/vita.html">the original</a> on 5 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Don+Knuth%27s+Home+Page&amp;rft.atitle=Less+brief+biography&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-cs-faculty.stanford.edu%2F~uno%2Fvita.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Knuth_Kyoto_1996-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Knuth_Kyoto_1996_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth" class="citation web cs1">Knuth, Donald E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180127194502/http://www.kyotoprize.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/12kA_lct_EN.pdf">"Commemorative lecture of the Kyoto Prize, 1996"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="Kyoto_Prize" title="Kyoto Prize">Kyoto Prize</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kyotoprize.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/12kA_lct_EN.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Commemorative+lecture+of+the+Kyoto+Prize%2C+1996&amp;rft.pub=Kyoto+Prize&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kyotoprize.org%2Fwp%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F02%2F12kA_lct_EN.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth" class="citation cs2">Knuth, Donald Ervin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150112075949/https://www.saildart.org/TEXDR.AFT%5B1%2CDEK%5D1#91;1,DEK%5D1"><i>TEXDR.AFT</i></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saildart.org/TEXDR.AFT%5B1,DEK%5D1">the original</a> on 12 January 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=TEXDR.AFT&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+Ervin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.saildart.org%2FTEXDR.AFT%26%2391%3B1%2CDEK%26%2393%3B1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">
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</style><span class="citation foldoc">This article is based on material taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foldoc.org/TeX">TeX</a> at the <i><a href="Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing" title="Free On-line Dictionary of Computing">Free On-line Dictionary of Computing</a></i>  prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the <a href="GNU_Free_Documentation_License" title="GNU Free Documentation License">GFDL</a>, version 1.3 or later.</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981144-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981144_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnuthPlass1981">Knuth &amp; Plass 1981</a>, p.&nbsp;144.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knuth, Donald E. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maps.aanhet.net/maps/pdf/16_15.pdf">Knuth meets NTG members</a></i>, NTG: MAPS. <b>16</b> (1996), 38–49. Reprinted as <i>Questions and Answers, III</i>, chapter 33 of <i>Digital Typography</i>, p. 648.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knuth, Donald E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb10-3/tb25knut.pdf"><i>The New Versions of TeX and METAFONT</i></a>, TUGboat <b>10</b> (1989), 325–328; <b>11</b> (1990), 12. Reprinted as chapter 29 of <i>Digital Typography</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHoenig1998" class="citation book cs1">Hoenig, Alan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-xzeQtE4y0kC&amp;dq=TeX82+published+in+1982&amp;pg=PA8"><i>TeX Unbound: LaTeX &amp; TeX Strategies for Fonts, Graphics, &amp; More</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>978-0-19-509686-6</bdi>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=TeX+Unbound%3A+LaTeX+%26+TeX+Strategies+for+Fonts%2C+Graphics%2C+%26+More&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-509686-6&amp;rft.aulast=Hoenig&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-xzeQtE4y0kC%26dq%3DTeX82%2Bpublished%2Bin%2B1982%26pg%3DPA8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.cs.stanford.edu/pub/tex/tex21.tar.gz">"TeX 21 release"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=TeX+21+release&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.cs.stanford.edu%2Fpub%2Ftex%2Ftex21.tar.gz&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190428184722/https://texfaq.org/FAQ-TeXfuture">"What is the future of TeX?"</a>. <i>The TeX FAQ</i>. 27 May 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://texfaq.org/FAQ-TeXfuture">the original</a> on 28 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+TeX+FAQ&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+the+future+of+TeX%3F&amp;rft.date=2018-05-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftexfaq.org%2FFAQ-TeXfuture&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knuth, Donald E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ntg.nl/maps/05/34.pdf"><i>The future of TeX and METAFONT</i></a>, NTG journal MAPS (1990), 489. Reprinted as chapter 30 of <i>Digital Typography</i>, p. 571.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knuth, Donald E. <i>The TeXbook</i>, Ch.&nbsp;1: The Name of the Game, p.&nbsp;1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knuth, Donald E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb07-2/tb15knutlogo.pdf"><i>The TeX Logo in Various Fonts</i></a>, <a href="TUGboat" title="TUGboat">TUGboat</a> <b>7</b> (1986), 101. Reprinted as chapter 6 of <i>Digital Typography</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey1990" class="citation cs2">Jeffrey, Alan (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb11-2/tb28jeffrey.pdf">"Lists in TeX's Mouth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>TUGboat</i>, <b>11</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">237–</span>45</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=Lists+in+TeX%27s+Mouth&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=237-45&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.aulast=Jeffrey&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftug.org%2FTUGboat%2FArticles%2Ftb11-2%2Ftb28jeffrey.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex?lang=en">"CTAN: Package pdftex"</a>. <i>ctan.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ctan.org&amp;rft.atitle=CTAN%3A+Package+pdftex&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fctan.org%2Fpkg%2Fpdftex%3Flang%3Den&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuth19849-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuth19849_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnuth1984">Knuth 1984</a>, p.&nbsp;9.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210509074312/https://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/lib/plain.tex"><i>Plain TeX</i></a> (source code), CTAN, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="ftp://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/lib/plain.tex">the original</a> on 9 May 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Plain+TeX&amp;rft.pub=CTAN&amp;rft_id=ftp%3A%2F%2Ftug.ctan.org%2Fpub%2Ftex-archive%2Fsystems%2Fknuth%2Fdist%2Flib%2Fplain.tex&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190428184756/https://texfaq.org/FAQ-AMSpkg">"What are the AMS packages (amsmath, etc.)?"</a>. <i>The TeX FAQ</i>. 27 May 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://texfaq.org/FAQ-AMSpkg">the original</a> on 28 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+TeX+FAQ&amp;rft.atitle=What+are+the+AMS+packages+%28amsmath%2C+etc.%29%3F&amp;rft.date=2018-05-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftexfaq.org%2FFAQ-AMSpkg&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSlater1989" class="citation cs2">Slater, Robert (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aWTtMyYmKhUC&amp;pg=PA349"><i>Portraits in Silicon</i></a>, MIT Press, p.&nbsp;349, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>9780262691314</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Portraits+in+Silicon&amp;rft.pages=349&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.isbn=9780262691314&amp;rft.aulast=Slater&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaWTtMyYmKhUC%26pg%3DPA349&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSyropoulosTsolomitisSofroniou2003" class="citation cs2">Syropoulos, Apostolos; Tsolomitis, Antonis; Sofroniou, Nick (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLYYisjrFdEC&amp;pg=PA92"><i>Digital Typography Using LaTeX</i></a>, Springer, p.&nbsp;93, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>9780387952178</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+Typography+Using+LaTeX&amp;rft.pages=93&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=9780387952178&amp;rft.aulast=Syropoulos&amp;rft.aufirst=Apostolos&amp;rft.au=Tsolomitis%2C+Antonis&amp;rft.au=Sofroniou%2C+Nick&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLYYisjrFdEC%26pg%3DPA92&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1996" class="citation journal cs1">Knuth, Donald E (1996). "Questions and Answers II". <i>TUGboat</i>. <b>17</b>: <span class="nowrap">355–</span>367.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=Questions+and+Answers+II&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.pages=355-367&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-DigitalTypography-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DigitalTypography_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DigitalTypography_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DigitalTypography_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1999" class="citation book cs1">Knuth, Donald E. (1999). <i>Digital Typography</i>. Stanford, Calif: Center for the Study of Language and Information Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>978-1-57586-010-7</bdi>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+Typography&amp;rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&amp;rft.pub=Center+for+the+Study+of+Language+and+Information+Publications&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-57586-010-7&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knuth, Donald E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb10-1/tb23knut.pdf"><i>Typesetting Concrete Mathematics</i></a>, TUGboat <b>10</b> (1989), pp. 31–36, 342. Reprinted as chapter 18 of <i>Digital Typography</i>, pp. 367–378.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVieth" class="citation web cs1">Vieth, Ulrik. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220120120543/http://www.ntg.nl/maps/26/27.pdf">"Math typesetting in TEX: The good, the bad, the ugly"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ntg.nl/maps/26/27.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Math+typesetting+in+TEX%3A+The+good%2C+the+bad%2C+the+ugly&amp;rft.aulast=Vieth&amp;rft.aufirst=Ulrik&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ntg.nl%2Fmaps%2F26%2F27.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.msdn.com/b/murrays/archive/2006/09/13/752206.aspx">"High-Quality Editing and Display of Mathematical Text in Office 2007"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=High-Quality+Editing+and+Display+of+Mathematical+Text+in+Office+2007&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.msdn.com%2Fb%2Fmurrays%2Farchive%2F2006%2F09%2F13%2F752206.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.msdn.com/b/murrays/archive/2006/11/15/lineservices.aspx">"LineServices"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=LineServices&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.msdn.com%2Fb%2Fmurrays%2Farchive%2F2006%2F11%2F15%2Flineservices.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ntg.nl/maps/38/03.pdf">"Map"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ntg.nl</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ntg.nl&amp;rft.atitle=Map&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ntg.nl%2Fmaps%2F38%2F03.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1965" class="citation cs2">Barnett, Michael P (1965), <i>Computer Typesetting: Experiments and Prospects</i>, <a href="Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge</a>, <a href="Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a>: <a href="MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Typesetting%3A+Experiments+and+Prospects&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=1965&amp;rft.aulast=Barnett&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+P&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">url=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://svn.tug.org/interviews/plass.html">http://svn.tug.org/interviews/plass.html</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthPlass1981_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnuthPlass1981">Knuth &amp; Plass 1981</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090122043044/http://www.advogato.org/article/28.html">"Donald E. Knuth"</a>, <i>TUGboat</i> (interview), <b>21</b>, <a href="Advogato" title="Advogato">Advogato</a>: <span class="nowrap">103–</span>10, 2000, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.advogato.org/article/28.html">the original</a> on 22 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2005</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=Donald+E.+Knuth&amp;rft.volume=21&amp;rft.pages=103-10&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.advogato.org%2Farticle%2F28.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/manual/html_node/fmt-invocation.html#fmt-invocation">"4.1 fmt: Reformat paragraph text"</a>, <i>Core GNU utilities (GNU coreutils) manual</i>, GNU Project, 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=4.1+fmt%3A+Reformat+paragraph+text&amp;rft.btitle=Core+GNU+utilities+%28GNU+coreutils%29+manual&amp;rft.pub=GNU+Project&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fsoftware%2Fcoreutils%2Fmanual%2Fhtml_node%2Ffmt-invocation.html%23fmt-invocation&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang19833-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang19833_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiang1983">Liang 1983</a>, p.&nbsp;3.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang1983-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang1983_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiang1983">Liang 1983</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2">"Appendix H: Hyphenation", <i>The TeXbook</i>, pp.&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">449–</span>55</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Appendix+H%3A+Hyphenation&amp;rft.btitle=The+TeXbook&amp;rft.pages=449-55&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuth1984127Ch._16:_Typing_Math_Formulas-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuth1984127Ch._16:_Typing_Math_Formulas_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnuth1984">Knuth 1984</a>, p.&nbsp;127, Ch. 16: Typing Math Formulas.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeebe200410-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeebe200410_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeebe2004">Beebe 2004</a>, p.&nbsp;10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuthMacKay1987" class="citation cs2">Knuth, Donald E; MacKay, Pierre (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb08-1/tb17knutmix.pdf">"Mixing Right-to-Left Texts with Left-to-Right Texts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>TUGboat</i>, <b>8</b>: <span class="nowrap">14–</span>25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=Mixing+Right-to-Left+Texts+with+Left-to-Right+Texts&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.pages=14-25&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E&amp;rft.au=MacKay%2C+Pierre&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tug.org%2FTUGboat%2FArticles%2Ftb08-1%2Ftb17knutmix.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1996" class="citation cs2">Knuth, Donald E (1996), "Questions and Answers I", <i>TUGboat</i>, <b>17</b>: <span class="nowrap">7–</span>22</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=Questions+and+Answers+I&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.pages=7-22&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1996" class="citation cs2">Knuth, Donald E (1996), "Questions and Answers II", <i>TUGboat</i>, <b>17</b>: <span class="nowrap">355–</span>367</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=Questions+and+Answers+II&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.pages=355-367&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emleddin.github.io/comp-chem-website/Otherguide-chemistry-latex.html">"Helpful LaTeX Packages for Chemistry | Computational Chemistry Resources"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Helpful+LaTeX+Packages+for+Chemistry+%26%23124%3B+Computational+Chemistry+Resources&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femleddin.github.io%2Fcomp-chem-website%2FOtherguide-chemistry-latex.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connell2002" class="citation journal cs1">O'Connell, Heath (2002). "Physicists Thriving with Paperless Publishing". <i>Hep Lib.web</i>. <b>6</b>: 3. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0007040">physics/0007040</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Hep+Lib.web.&amp;rft.atitle=Physicists+Thriving+with+Paperless+Publishing&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=3&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0007040&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Connell&amp;rft.aufirst=Heath&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knuth, Donald E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctan.org/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/errata/tex82.bug">List of updates to the TeX82 listing published in September 1982</a>, available on <a href="CTAN" title="CTAN">CTAN</a>.</span>
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</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKara_Platoni2006" class="citation web cs1">Kara Platoni (May–June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060604115901/http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2006/mayjun/features/knuth.html">"Love at First Byte"</a>. <i><a href="Stanford_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Magazine">Stanford Magazine</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2006/mayjun/features/knuth.html">the original</a> on 4 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Stanford+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Love+at+First+Byte&amp;rft.date=2006-05%2F2006-06&amp;rft.au=Kara+Platoni&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanfordalumni.org%2Fnews%2Fmagazine%2F2006%2Fmayjun%2Ffeatures%2Fknuth.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/whatis.html">"History of TeX"</a>. <i>TeX Users Group</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=TeX+Users+Group&amp;rft.atitle=History+of+TeX&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tug.org%2Fwhatis.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth2008" class="citation web cs1">Knuth, Donald E (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191129030740/https://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/news08.html">"Knuth: Recent News – Financial Fiasco"</a>. <i>Stanford Computer Science</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/news08.html">the original</a> on 29 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Stanford+Computer+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Knuth%3A+Recent+News+%E2%80%93+Financial+Fiasco&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-cs-faculty.stanford.edu%2F~knuth%2Fnews08.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1986" class="citation journal cs1">Knuth, Donald E. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tug.org/TUGboat/tb07-2/tb15knut.pdf">"Remarks to Celebrate the Publication of Computers &amp; Typesetting"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>TUGboat</i>. <b>7</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">95–</span>98<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=Remarks+to+Celebrate+the+Publication+of+Computers+%26+Typesetting&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=95-98&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftug.org%2FTUGboat%2Ftb07-2%2Ftb15knut.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1990" class="citation journal cs1">Knuth, Donald E. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tug.org/TUGboat/tb11-4/tb30knut.pdf">"The Future of TeX and METAFONT"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>TUGboat</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 489<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=The+Future+of+TeX+and+METAFONT&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=489&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tug.org%2FTUGboat%2Ftb11-4%2Ftb30knut.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1997" class="citation web cs1">Knuth, Donald Ervin (1 November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kyotoprize.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/1996_A.pdf">"Digital Typography: 1996 Kyoto Prize Lecture"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Kyoto Prize</i>. The Inamori Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Kyoto+Prize&amp;rft.atitle=Digital+Typography%3A+1996+Kyoto+Prize+Lecture&amp;rft.date=1997-11-01&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+Ervin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kyotoprize.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F07%2F1996_A.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2">"Trip", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210612084428/ftp://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/tex/trip.tex"><i>CTAN</i></a> (source code), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="ftp://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/tex/trip.tex">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(TeX)</span> on 12 June 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Trip&amp;rft.btitle=CTAN&amp;rft_id=ftp%3A%2F%2Ftug.ctan.org%2Fpub%2Ftex-archive%2Fsystems%2Fknuth%2Fdist%2Ftex%2Ftrip.tex&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBeebe2004" class="citation cs2">Beebe, Nelson HF (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb25-1/beebe-2003keynote.pdf">"25 Years of TeX and METAFONT: Looking Back and Looking Forward"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>TUGboat</i>, <b>25</b>: <span class="nowrap">7–</span>30</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TUGboat&amp;rft.atitle=25+Years+of+TeX+and+METAFONT%3A+Looking+Back+and+Looking+Forward&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.pages=7-30&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.aulast=Beebe&amp;rft.aufirst=Nelson+HF&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tug.org%2FTUGboat%2FArticles%2Ftb25-1%2Fbeebe-2003keynote.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1984" class="citation cs2">Knuth, Donald Ervin (1984), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/texbook00dona"><i>The TeXbook</i></a></span>, <a href="Computers_and_Typesetting" title="Computers and Typesetting">Computers and Typesetting</a>, vol.&nbsp;A, Reading, <a href="Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a>: Addison-Wesley, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>0-201-13448-9</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+TeXbook&amp;rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&amp;rft.series=Computers+and+Typesetting&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1984&amp;rft.isbn=0-201-13448-9&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+Ervin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftexbook00dona&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.  The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/tex/texbook.tex">source code of the book in TeX</a> (and a needed set of macros <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210509081017/https://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/lib/manmac.tex">[1]</a>) is available online on <a href="CTAN" title="CTAN">CTAN</a>. It is provided only as an example and its use to prepare a book like The TeXbook is not allowed.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1986" class="citation cs2">——— (1986), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/texprogram00knut"><i>TeX: The Program</i></a></span>, Computers and Typesetting, vol.&nbsp;B, Reading, <a href="Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a>: Addison-Wesley, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>0-201-13437-3</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=TeX%3A+The+Program&amp;rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&amp;rft.series=Computers+and+Typesetting&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.isbn=0-201-13437-3&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+Ervin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftexprogram00knut&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>. The full source code of TeX; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210509065715/https://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/tex/tex.web">available</a> on <a href="CTAN" title="CTAN">CTAN</a>. Being written using <a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">literate programming</a>, it contains plenty of human-readable documentation.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1999" class="citation cs2">——— (1999), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/digitaltypograph0000knut"><i>Digital Typography</i></a></span>, Lecture notes, Center for the Study of Language and Information, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>1-57586-010-4</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+Typography&amp;rft.series=Lecture+notes&amp;rft.pub=Center+for+the+Study+of+Language+and+Information&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=1-57586-010-4&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+Ervin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdigitaltypograph0000knut&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKnuthPlass1981" class="citation journal cs1">———; Plass, Michael F (1981). "Breaking Paragraphs into Lines". <i>Software: Practice and Experience</i>. <b>11</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1119–</span>84. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fspe.4380111102">10.1002/spe.4380111102</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&nbsp;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206508107">206508107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Software%3A+Practice+and+Experience&amp;rft.atitle=Breaking+Paragraphs+into+Lines&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=1119-84&amp;rft.date=1981&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fspe.4380111102&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206508107%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+Ervin&amp;rft.au=Plass%2C+Michael+F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKnuth" class="citation cs2">———, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927042518/http://www.tex.ac.uk/ctan/systems/knuth/dist/tex/"><i>TeX</i></a> (source code), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tex.ac.uk/ctan/systems/knuth/dist/tex/">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="WEB" class="mw-redirect" title="WEB">WEB</a>)</span> on 27 September 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=TeX&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+Ervin&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tex.ac.uk%2Fctan%2Fsystems%2Fknuth%2Fdist%2Ftex%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span> contains extensive documentation about the algorithms used in TeX.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLamport1994" class="citation cs2"><a href="Leslie_Lamport" title="Leslie Lamport">Lamport, Leslie</a> (1994), <i><a href="LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a>: A Document Preparation System</i> (2nd&nbsp;ed.), Reading, <a href="Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a>: Addison-Wesley, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>0-201-52983-1</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=LaTeX%3A+A+Document+Preparation+System&amp;rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=0-201-52983-1&amp;rft.aulast=Lamport&amp;rft.aufirst=Leslie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLiang1983" class="citation cs2">Liang, Franklin Mark (August 1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/docs/liang/"><i>Word Hy-phen-a-tion by Com-put-er</i></a> (<a href="PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> thesis), Department of Computer Science, <a href="Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Word+Hy-phen-a-tion+by+Com-put-er&amp;rft.pub=Department+of+Computer+Science%2C+Stanford+University&amp;rft.date=1983-08&amp;rft.aulast=Liang&amp;rft.aufirst=Franklin+Mark&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tug.org%2Fdocs%2Fliang%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSalomon1995" class="citation cs2">Salomon, David (1995), <i>The Advanced TeXbook</i>, Springer, <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995adte.book.....S">1995adte.book.....S</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>0-387-94556-3</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Advanced+TeXbook&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995adte.book.....S&amp;rft.isbn=0-387-94556-3&amp;rft.aulast=Salomon&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSpivak1990" class="citation cs2">Spivak, MD (1990), <i>The Joy of TeX</i> (reference) (2nd&nbsp;ed.), American Mathematical Society, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>0-8218-2997-1</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Joy+of+TeX&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=American+Mathematical+Society&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=0-8218-2997-1&amp;rft.aulast=Spivak&amp;rft.aufirst=MD&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span> on AMS-TeX.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFVulis1992" class="citation cs2">Vulis, Michael (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UfUdto-Sz9QC"><i>Modern TeX and Its Applications</i></a>, CRC Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<bdi>0-8493-4431-X</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Modern+TeX+and+Its+Applications&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=0-8493-4431-X&amp;rft.aulast=Vulis&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUfUdto-Sz9QC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tug.org/">TeX Users' Group</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tex.stackexchange.com/"><i>TeX</i></a> (questions and answers), StackExchange</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=TeX&amp;rft.pub=StackExchange&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftex.stackexchange.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeX" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li>Eijkhout, Victor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eijkhout.net/tbt/"><i>TeX by Topic</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225003039/http://www.eijkhout.net/tbt/">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.gwdg.de/pub/ctan/info/impatient/book.pdf"><i>TeX for the Impatient</i></a></li>
<li>Donald Knuth discusses developing the software for TEX at Xerox PARC 2/21/1980  <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/xerox-parc-tapes-v49">https://archive.org/details/xerox-parc-tapes-v49</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="AMS-LaTeX" title="AMS-LaTeX">AMS-TeX</a></li>
<li><a href="ArabTeX" title="ArabTeX">ArabTeX</a></li>
<li><a href="CircuiTikZ" title="CircuiTikZ">CircuiTikZ</a></li>
<li><a href="ConTeXt" title="ConTeXt">ConTeXt</a></li>
<li><a href="LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a></li>
<li><a href="MusiXTeX" title="MusiXTeX">MusiXTeX</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plain TeX</a></li>
<li>OpTeX</li>
<li><a href="PSTricks" title="PSTricks">PSTricks</a></li>
<li><a href="PGF/TikZ" title="PGF/TikZ">TikZ</a></li>
<li><a href="TIPA_(software)" title="TIPA (software)">TIPA</a></li>
<li><a href="XyMTeX" title="XyMTeX">XyMTeX</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alternative TeX engines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="LuaTeX" title="LuaTeX">LuaTeX</a></li>
<li><a href="PdfTeX" title="PdfTeX">pdfTeX</a></li>
<li><a href="XeTeX" title="XeTeX">XeTeX</a></li>
<li>upTeX</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deprecated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Omega_(TeX)#Aleph_and_LuaTeX" title="Omega (TeX)">Aleph</a></li>
<li><a href="TeX_Live" title="TeX Live">ε-TeX</a></li>
<li><a href="New_Typesetting_System" title="New Typesetting System">NTS</a></li>
<li><a href="Omega_(TeX)" title="Omega (TeX)">Omega</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Distributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="MiKTeX" title="MiKTeX">MiKTeX</a></li>
<li><a href="TeX_Live" title="TeX Live">TeX Live</a>
<ul><li><a href="MacTeX" title="MacTeX">MacTeX</a></li>
<li>W32TeX</li></ul></li>
<li>TeXPortal</li>
<li>TinyTeX</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deprecated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="AmigaTeX" title="AmigaTeX">AmigaTeX</a></li>
<li>fpTeX</li>
<li>gwTeX</li>
<li>OzTeX</li>
<li>PasTeX</li>
<li><a href="TeTeX" title="TeTeX">teTeX</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Community</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="CTAN" title="CTAN">CTAN</a></li>
<li><a href="Deutschsprachige_Anwendervereinigung_TeX" title="Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung TeX">DANTE</a></li>
<li><i><a href="TUGboat" title="TUGboat">TUGboat</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="The_PracTeX_Journal" title="The PracTeX Journal">The PracTeX Journal</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="BibTeX" title="BibTeX">BibTeX</a></li>
<li><a href="Device_independent_file_format" title="Device independent file format">DVI</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_Modern" title="Computer Modern">Computer Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="Metafont" title="Metafont">Metafont</a></li>
<li><a href="MetaPost" title="MetaPost">MetaPost</a></li>
<li><a href="Web_(programming_system)" title="Web (programming system)">WEB</a></li>
<li><a href="CWEB" class="mw-redirect" title="CWEB">CWEB</a></li>
<li><a href="TeX_Directory_Structure" title="TeX Directory Structure">TeX Directory Structure</a></li>
<li><a href="TeX_font_metric" title="TeX font metric">TeX font metric</a></li>
<li><a href="Texinfo" title="Texinfo">Texinfo</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="List_of_TeX_extensions" title="List of TeX extensions">extensions</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="TeX_editors466" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="TeX_editors466" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">TeX</a> editors</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open source</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="AUCTeX" title="AUCTeX">AUCT<sub>E</sub>X</a></li>
<li><a href="GNOME_LaTeX" class="mw-redirect" title="GNOME LaTeX">GNOME LaTeX</a></li>
<li><a href="GNU_TeXmacs" title="GNU TeXmacs">GNU TeXmacs</a></li>
<li><a href="Gummi_(software)" title="Gummi (software)">Gummi</a></li>
<li><a href="Kile" title="Kile">Kile</a></li>
<li><a href="LyX" title="LyX">LyX</a></li>
<li><a href="Texmaker" title="Texmaker">Texmaker</a></li>
<li><a href="TeXnicCenter" title="TeXnicCenter">TeXnicCenter</a></li>
<li><a href="TeXShop" title="TeXShop">TeXShop</a></li>
<li><a href="TeXstudio" title="TeXstudio">TeXstudio</a></li>
<li><a href="TeXworks" title="TeXworks">TeXworks</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><img src="./_assets_/0c70a452f799bfe840676ee341124611/TeX_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="590" loading="lazy"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Freeware" title="Freeware">Freeware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="WinShell" title="WinShell">WinShell</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Retail_software" title="Retail software">Retail</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Scientific_WorkPlace" title="Scientific WorkPlace">Scientific WorkPlace</a></li>
<li><a href="WinEdt" title="WinEdt">WinEdt</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li><b>Category</b></li>
<li><b><a href="Comparison_of_TeX_editors" title="Comparison of TeX editors">Comparison</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Free_and_open-source_typography3522" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Free_and_open-source_typography3522" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source</a> <a href="Typography" title="Typography">typography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software<br>and libraries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="FontForge" title="FontForge">FontForge</a></li>
<li><a href="Fontmatrix" title="Fontmatrix">Fontmatrix</a></li>
<li><a href="FreeType" title="FreeType">FreeType</a></li>
<li><a href="Ghostscript" title="Ghostscript">Ghostscript</a></li>
<li><a href="HarfBuzz" title="HarfBuzz">HarfBuzz</a></li>
<li><a href="Metafont" title="Metafont">Metafont</a></li>
<li><a href="MetaPost" title="MetaPost">MetaPost</a></li>
<li><a href="MetaType1" title="MetaType1">MetaType1</a></li>
<li><a href="Pango" title="Pango">Pango</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">TeX</a></li>
<li><a href="Graphite_(smart_font_technology)" title="Graphite (smart font technology)">Graphite</a></li>
<li><a href="International_Components_for_Unicode" title="International Components for Unicode">ICU</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Licenses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Apache_License" title="Apache License">Apache License</a></li>
<li><a href="BSD_licenses" title="BSD licenses">BSD licenses</a></li>
<li><a href="Creative_Commons_license" title="Creative Commons license">Creative Commons licenses</a></li>
<li><a href="GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License</a> + <a href="GPL_font_exception" title="GPL font exception">GPL font exception</a></li>
<li><a href="GNU_Lesser_General_Public_License" title="GNU Lesser General Public License">GNU Lesser General Public License</a></li>
<li><a href="LaTeX_Project_Public_License" title="LaTeX Project Public License">LaTeX Project Public License</a></li>
<li><a href="MIT_License" title="MIT License">MIT License</a></li>
<li><a href="SIL_Open_Font_License" title="SIL Open Font License">SIL Open Font License</a></li>
<li><a href="Ubuntu_(typeface)#Ubuntu_Font_Licence" title="Ubuntu (typeface)">Ubuntu Font Licence</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a>,<br>corporate and<br>professional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Andika_(typeface)" title="Andika (typeface)">Andika</a></li>
<li><a href="Bitstream_Charter" title="Bitstream Charter">Bitstream Charter</a></li>
<li><a href="Bitstream_Vera" title="Bitstream Vera">Bitstream Vera</a>
<ul><li><a href="DejaVu_fonts" title="DejaVu fonts">DejaVu</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Breeze_Sans" title="Breeze Sans">Breeze Sans</a></li>
<li><a href="Cascadia_Code" title="Cascadia Code">Cascadia Code</a></li>
<li><a href="Cantarell_(typeface)" title="Cantarell (typeface)">Cantarell</a></li>
<li><a href="Charis_SIL" title="Charis SIL">Charis SIL</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_Modern" title="Computer Modern">Computer Modern</a>
<ul><li><a href="Concrete_Roman" title="Concrete Roman">Concrete Roman</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Courier_Prime" class="mw-redirect" title="Courier Prime">Courier Prime</a></li>
<li><a href="Doulos_SIL" title="Doulos SIL">Doulos SIL</a></li>
<li><a href="Droid_(typeface)" title="Droid (typeface)">Droid</a>
<ul><li><a href="Noto_fonts" title="Noto fonts">Noto</a></li>
<li><a href="Open_Sans" title="Open Sans">Open Sans</a></li>
<li><a href="Roboto" title="Roboto">Roboto</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Fira_(typeface)" title="Fira (typeface)">Fira</a></li>
<li><a href="Gentium" title="Gentium">Gentium</a></li>
<li><a href="Ghostscript#Free_fonts" title="Ghostscript">Ghostscript fonts</a></li>
<li><a href="GNU_FreeFont" title="GNU FreeFont">GNU FreeFont</a></li>
<li><a href="GNU_Unifont" title="GNU Unifont">GNU Unifont</a></li>
<li><a href="Go_(programming_language)#History" title="Go (programming language)">Go and Go Mono</a></li>
<li><a href="Hershey_fonts" title="Hershey fonts">Hershey fonts</a></li>
<li><a href="IBM_Plex" title="IBM Plex">IBM Plex</a></li>
<li><a href="Inter_(typeface)" title="Inter (typeface)">Inter</a></li>
<li><a href="Liberation_fonts" title="Liberation fonts">Liberation</a>
<ul><li><a href="Croscore_fonts" title="Croscore fonts">Croscore</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Literata" title="Literata">Literata</a></li>
<li><a href="Lohit_fonts" title="Lohit fonts">Lohit</a></li>
<li><a href="Nanum_fonts" title="Nanum fonts">Nanum fonts</a></li>
<li><a href="Nimbus_Mono_L" title="Nimbus Mono L">Nimbus Mono</a>
<ul><li><a href="Nimbus_Sans" title="Nimbus Sans">Sans</a></li>
<li><a href="Nimbus_Roman_No._9_L" title="Nimbus Roman No. 9 L">Roman</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="OCR-A" title="OCR-A">OCR-A</a>
<ul><li><a href="OCR-B" title="OCR-B">OCR-B</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Overpass_(typeface)" title="Overpass (typeface)">Overpass</a></li>
<li><a href="Segoe#Selawik" title="Segoe">Selawik</a></li>
<li><a href="Source_Code_Pro" title="Source Code Pro">Source Code</a>
<ul><li><a href="Source_Han_Sans" title="Source Han Sans">Source Han Sans</a></li>
<li><a href="Source_Han_Serif" title="Source Han Serif">Source Han Serif</a></li>
<li><a href="Source_Sans" class="mw-redirect" title="Source Sans">Source Sans</a></li>
<li><a href="Source_Serif" class="mw-redirect" title="Source Serif">Source Serif</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="STIX_Fonts_project" title="STIX Fonts project">STIX fonts</a></li>
<li><a href="Tiresias_(typeface)" title="Tiresias (typeface)">Tiresias</a></li>
<li><a href="Ubuntu_(typeface)" title="Ubuntu (typeface)">Ubuntu</a>, <a href="Ubuntu_Titling" title="Ubuntu Titling">Ubuntu Titling</a></li>
<li><a href="Utopia_(typeface)" title="Utopia (typeface)">Utopia</a></li>
<li><a href="Zilla_Slab" title="Zilla Slab">Zilla Slab</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government<br>typefaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="National_Fonts" title="National Fonts">National Fonts</a></li>
<li><a href="PT_Fonts" title="PT Fonts">PT Fonts</a></li>
<li><a href="Johnston_(typeface)" title="Johnston (typeface)">Railway Sans</a></li>
<li><a href="E-Ukraine" title="E-Ukraine">e-Ukraine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br>typefaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Amiri_(typeface)" title="Amiri (typeface)">Amiri</a></li>
<li><span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl"><a href="Antykwa_P%C3%B3%C5%82tawskiego" title="Antykwa Półtawskiego">Antykwa Półtawskiego</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="Asana-Math" title="Asana-Math">Asana-Math</a></li>
<li><a href="Atkinson_Hyperlegible" title="Atkinson Hyperlegible">Atkinson Hyperlegible</a></li>
<li><a href="Bembo#Digitisations_and_derivatives" title="Bembo">Cardo</a></li>
<li><a href="Chandas_(typeface)" title="Chandas (typeface)">Chandas</a></li>
<li><a href="Comic_Neue" title="Comic Neue">Comic Neue</a></li>
<li><a href="Garamond#Cormorant" title="Garamond">Cormorant</a></li>
<li><a href="EB_Garamond" title="EB Garamond">EB Garamond</a></li>
<li><a href="Gentium" title="Gentium">Gentium</a></li>
<li><a href="History_of_Western_typography#Fell_types" title="History of Western typography">IM Fell</a></li>
<li><a href="Inconsolata" title="Inconsolata">Inconsolata</a></li>
<li><a href="Iosevka" class="mw-redirect" title="Iosevka">Iosevka</a></li>
<li><a href="Jomolhari_(typeface)" title="Jomolhari (typeface)">Jomolhari</a></li>
<li><a href="Junicode" title="Junicode">Junicode</a></li>
<li><a href="Kochi_(font)" title="Kochi (font)">Kochi</a></li>
<li><a href="Lato_(typeface)" title="Lato (typeface)">Lato</a></li>
<li><a href="Linux_Libertine" title="Linux Libertine">Linux Libertine</a></li>
<li><a href="Montserrat_(typeface)" title="Montserrat (typeface)">Montserrat</a></li>
<li><a href="M%2B_FONTS" title="M+ FONTS">M<sup>+</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="News_Gothic" title="News Gothic">News Cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="Baskerville" title="Baskerville">Open Baskerville</a></li>
<li><a href="OpenDyslexic" title="OpenDyslexic">OpenDyslexic</a></li>
<li><a href="Bank_Gothic" title="Bank Gothic">Squarish Sans CT</a></li>
<li><a href="Theano_Didot" title="Theano Didot">Theano Didot</a></li>
<li><a href="WenQuanYi" title="WenQuanYi">WenQuanYi</a></li>
<li><a href="XITS_font_project" title="XITS font project">XITS</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups and<br>people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a></li>
<li><a href="Ray_Larabie" title="Ray Larabie">Ray Larabie</a></li>
<li><a href="Raph_Levien" title="Raph Levien">Raph Levien</a></li>
<li><a href="Behdad_Esfahbod" title="Behdad Esfahbod">Behdad Esfahbod</a></li>
<li><a href="Font_Awesome" title="Font Awesome">Font Awesome</a></li>
<li><a href="Greek_Font_Society" title="Greek Font Society">Greek Font Society</a></li>
<li><a href="Font_Library" title="Font Library">Font Library</a></li>
<li><a href="Google_Fonts" title="Google Fonts">Google Fonts</a></li>
<li><a href="SIL_International" class="mw-redirect" title="SIL International">SIL International</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="./_assets_/0c70a452f799bfe840676ee341124611/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_(2009).svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" loading="lazy"></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3AFree_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software portal</a>
<ul><li><a href="Open-source_Unicode_typefaces" title="Open-source Unicode typefaces">Open-source Unicode typefaces</a></li>
<li>List of open source typefaces</li>
<li>List of free software Unicode typefaces</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Donald_Knuth1116" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Donald_Knuth1116" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="The_Art_of_Computer_Programming" title="The Art of Computer Programming">The Art of Computer Programming</a></i></li>
<li>"<a href="The_Complexity_of_Songs" title="The Complexity of Songs">The Complexity of Songs</a>"</li>
<li><i><a href="Computers_and_Typesetting" title="Computers and Typesetting">Computers and Typesetting</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Concrete_Mathematics" title="Concrete Mathematics">Concrete Mathematics</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Surreal_Numbers_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Surreal Numbers (book)">Surreal Numbers</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Things_a_Computer_Scientist_Rarely_Talks_About" title="Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About">Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Selected_papers_series_of_Knuth" title="Selected papers series of Knuth">Selected papers series</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software" title="Software">Software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">TeX</a></li>
<li><a href="Metafont" title="Metafont">Metafont</a></li>
<li>MIXAL (<a href="MIX_(abstract_machine)" title="MIX (abstract machine)">MIX</a></li>
<li><a href="MMIX" title="MMIX">MMIX</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Font" title="Font">Fonts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="AMS_Euler" title="AMS Euler">AMS Euler</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_Modern" title="Computer Modern">Computer Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="Concrete_Roman" title="Concrete Roman">Concrete Roman</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate programming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Web_(programming_system)" title="Web (programming system)">WEB</a></li>
<li><a href="CWEB" class="mw-redirect" title="CWEB">CWEB</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Knuth's_Algorithm_X" title="Knuth's Algorithm X">Knuth's Algorithm X</a></li>
<li><a href="Knuth%E2%80%93Bendix_completion_algorithm" title="Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm">Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm</a></li>
<li><a href="Knuth%E2%80%93Morris%E2%80%93Pratt_algorithm" title="Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm">Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm</a></li>
<li><a href="Fisher%E2%80%93Yates_shuffle" title="Fisher–Yates shuffle">Knuth shuffle</a></li>
<li><a href="Robinson%E2%80%93Schensted%E2%80%93Knuth_correspondence" title="Robinson–Schensted–Knuth correspondence">Robinson–Schensted–Knuth correspondence</a></li>
<li><a href="Trabb_Pardo%E2%80%93Knuth_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Trabb Pardo–Knuth algorithm">Trabb Pardo–Knuth algorithm</a></li>
<li>Generalization of <a href="Dijkstra's_algorithm" title="Dijkstra's algorithm">Dijkstra's algorithm</a></li>
<li><a href="Knuth's_Simpath_algorithm" title="Knuth's Simpath algorithm">Knuth's Simpath algorithm</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Dancing_Links" class="mw-redirect" title="Dancing Links">Dancing Links</a></li>
<li><a href="Knuth_reward_check" title="Knuth reward check">Knuth reward check</a></li>
<li><a href="Knuth_Prize" title="Knuth Prize">Knuth Prize</a></li>
<li><a href="Knuth's_up-arrow_notation" title="Knuth's up-arrow notation">Knuth's up-arrow notation</a></li>
<li><a href="Man_or_boy_test" title="Man or boy test">Man or boy test</a></li>
<li><a href="Quater-imaginary_base" title="Quater-imaginary base">Quater-imaginary base</a></li>
<li><a href="-yllion" title="-yllion">-yllion</a></li>
<li><a href="Potrzebie#System_of_measurement" title="Potrzebie">Potrzebie system of weights and measures</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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